Byblos

Byblos

???????
Jebeil
Byblos ??????? Jebeil
City
	Byblos Old Town
	Byblos Location within Lebanon Byblos Byblos (Middle East)
	Coordinates: 34°07′25″N 35°39′07″E? / ?34.12361°N 35.65194°E
Country	Lebanon
Governorate	Keserwan-Jbeil
District	Byblos
Area
? City	4.16 km2 (1.61 sq mi)
? Metro	17 km2 (7 sq mi)
Population
? City	40,000
? Metro	100,000
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
? Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Dialing code	+961
Website	www.jbail-byblos.gov.lb
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Criteria	Cultural: iii, iv, vi
Reference	295
Inscription	1984 (8th Session)

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Byblos (/?b?bl?s/ BIB-loss; Ancient Greek: Β?βλο?), also known as Jebeil, Jbeil or Jubayl (Arabic: ???????, romanized: Jubayl, locally Jbeil [?(?)be?l]), is an ancient city in the Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate of Lebanon. The area is believed to have been first settled between 8800 and 7000 BC^[1] and continuously inhabited since 5000 BC.^[2] During its history, Byblos was part of numerous cultures including Egyptian, Phoenician, Assyrian, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Genoese, Mamluk and Ottoman. Urbanisation is thought to have begun during the third millennium BC when it developed into a city,^[3]^[2] making it one of the oldest cities in the world, if not the oldest. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[4]

It was in Ancient Byblos that the Phoenician alphabet, the ancestor of the Greek, Latin and all other Western alphabets, was developed.^[5]

Etymology

kbnj^[6]
in hieroglyphs

Era: 1st Intermediate Period
(2181–2055 BC)

kbn^[6]^[7]
in hieroglyphs

Era: Middle Kingdom
(2055–1650 BC)

The name appears as Kebny in Egyptian hieroglyphic records going back to the 4th-dynasty pharaoh Sneferu (fl.?2600 BC)^[8] and as Gubla (????) in the Akkadian cuneiform Amarna letters to the 18th-dynasty pharaohs Amenhotep III and IV. In the 1st millennium BC, its name appeared in Phoenician and Punic inscriptions as Gebal (??????, GBL);^[9]^[10] in the Hebrew Bible as Geval (???);^[11] and in Syriac as GBL (???). Eusebius' Onomasticon stated that Byblos was called "Gobel / Gebal" in Hebrew.^[12] The name seems to derive from GB (????, "well") and ?L (????, "god"), the latter a word that could variously refer to any of the Canaanite gods or to their leader in particular. The name thus seems to have meant the "Well of the God" or "Source of the God".^{[citation needed]}

Its present Arabic name Jubayl (????) or J(e)beil is a direct descendant of these earlier names, although apparently modified by a misunderstanding of the name as the triliteral root GBL or JBL, meaning "mountain". When the Arabic form of the name is used, it is typically rendered Jbeil, Jbail, or Jbayl in English.^{[citation needed]} All of these, along with Byblos, are etymologically related. During the Crusades, this name appeared in Western records as Gibelet or Giblet. This name was used for Byblos Castle and its associated lordship.^{[citation needed]}

The Phoenician City, known to the Greeks as Byblos (Β?βλο?) and to the Romans as Byblus, was important for their import of papyrus out of Ancient Egypt^[13] – to the extent that "Byblos" came to mean "papyrus" in Greek. The English word "Bible", therefore, ultimately derives from the Greek name of the city, Β?βλο? ('Β?blos / Byblos'), a Greek mumbo-jumble of ?????? ('Gā?al / G?bal Gobal'..., that is, 'Gebal' or 'Jebel'), which shares the same root as ??????? ('G??ūl / Gābūl, that is 'Gebul' or 'Jabul'), as they're derivatives of ????? ('g-?-l' / 'g-b-l' / 'g-v-l'), which means 'twist as a rope', '(be a, set) border' or 'bound(aria)', which tells us that it is a North Boundary of Canaan.^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]

History and archaeology

Situated approximately 42 km (26 mi) north of Beirut, Byblos holds a strong allure for archaeologists due to its accumulations of various strata resulting from countless centuries of human dwelling. The initial excavation was conducted by Ernest Renan in 1860, documented in his work "Mission de Phénicie" (1865–1874). This was succeeded by Pierre Montet's efforts from 1921 to 1924, and later by Maurice Dunand, who continued excavations from 1925 for a span of forty years.^[20]^[21] Renan's expedition was to "provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos".^[22]

Fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre-Homeric Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon say Byblos was the first city erected in Phoenicia and was established by the god Cronus.^[23] (Cronus was considered the nearest equivalent to the Canaanite Baal / Baal Hammon in the syncretising system used by the ancient Greeks and Romans.) According to the writer Philo of Byblos (quoting Sanchuniathon, and quoted in Eusebius), Byblos was founded by the Phoenician shrine god El (whom the Greeks identified with their god Cronus). During the 3rd millennium BC, the first signs of a town can be observed, with the remains of well-built houses of uniform size. This was the period when the Canaanite civilization began to develop.^{[citation needed]}

Neolithic and Chalcolithic levels

Neolithic remains of some buildings can be observed at the site. Jacques Cauvin published studies of flint tools from the stratified Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in 1962.^[24] Remains of humans found in Chalcolithic burials have been published by Henri Victor Vallois in 1937.^[25] Tombs from this era were discussed by Emir Maurice Chehab in 1950.^[26] Early pottery found at the tell was published by E.S. Boynton in 1960 with further studies by R. Erich in 1954 and Van Liere and Henri de Contenson in 1964.^[27]^[28]^[29]

Dunand's five-level stratigraphy

Prehistoric settlements at Byblos were divided up by Dunand into the following five periods, which were recently expanded and re-calibrated by Yosef Garfinkel to correlate with Tell es-Sultan (Jericho):

Early Neolithic (early phase) corresponding to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) of Jericho, represented by plastered floors and naviforme technology, dated between 8800 and 7000 BC;
Early Neolithic (late phase) corresponding to the PNA of Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) IX (also Yarmukian) between 6400 and 5800 BC, represented by pottery, sickle blades, figurines and small points;
Middle Neolithic corresponding to the PNB of Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) VIII and represented by pottery, dated between 5800 and 5300 BC;
Late Neolithic corresponding to the Middle Chalcolithic of Beth Shean and represented by pottery, stone vessels, silos, chamber tombs and seals, dated between 5300 and 4500 BC;
Early Chalcolithic corresponding to the Late Chalcolithic of Ghassulian, represented by jar burials, pierced flint, churn and a violin figurine, dated to between 4500 and 3600 BC and,
Late Chalcolithic corresponding to the Early Bronze Age, represented by architecture and cylinder seal impressions, dated to between 3600 and 3100 BC.^[1]

The site first appears to have been settled during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC^[1]^[30] (Durand's Early Neolithic).

Early Neolithic Byblos was a later settlement than others in the Beqaa Valley such as Labweh and Ard Tlaili. It was located on the seaward slope of the larger of the two hills that used to compose ancient Byblos, with a watered valley in between.^[31]

The original site spread down into the valley and covered an area of 1.2 ha (3.0 acres) providing fertile soils and a protected landing place for boats. Dunand discovered around twenty houses although some of the settlement was suggested to have been lost to the sea, robbed or destroyed.^[21]^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37] Dwellings were rectangular with plastered floors, pottery was usually Dark faced burnished ware with some shell impressions.^[38]

The Middle Neolithic was a smaller settlement of no more than 0.15 ha (0.37 acres) adjacent to the older site. The pottery was more developed with red washes and more varied forms and elaborate decorations, buildings were poorer with unplastered floors.^{[citation needed]}

The Late Neolithic period showed development from the middle in building design, a wider range of more developed flint tools and a far larger variety of pottery with fabrication including silica. The Late Chalcolithic featured developments of "Canaanite blades" and fan scrapers. Adult burials in jars started to appear along with metal in the form of one copper hook, found in a jar. Some jars were lined with white plaster that was applied and self-hardened after firing.^[39] Copper appeared more frequently in the Late Chalcolithic period along with multiple burials in tombs and jar handles with impressed signs.^[27]

Early Bronze

According to Lorenzo Nigro, Byblos moved from being a fishermen's village to its earlier urban form at the beginning of the third millennium BC.^[40] Early Bronze Age remains were characterised by the development of Byblos combed ware and a lithic assemblage studied by Jacques Cauvin.^[31]^[41]

Watson Mills and Roger Bullard suggest that during the Old Kingdom of Egypt and Middle Kingdom of Egypt Byblos was virtually an Egyptian colony.^[20] The growing city was a wealthy one and seems to have been an ally (among "those who are on his waters") of Egypt for many centuries. First Dynasty tombs used timbers from Byblos. One of the oldest Egyptian words for an oceangoing boat was "Byblos ship". Archaeologists have recovered Egyptian-made artifacts as old as a vessel fragment bearing the name of the Second dynasty ruler Khasekhemwy, although this "may easily have reached Byblos through trade and/or at a later period".^[42]

Middle Bronze

Objects have been found at Byblos naming the 12th Dynasty king Senusret II,^[43] the 13th Dynasty Egyptian king Neferhotep I.

Late Bronze

The rulers of Byblos maintained close relationships with the New Kingdom pharaohs of Ancient Egypt.^{[citation needed]}

Around 1350 BC, the Amarna letters include 60 letters from Rib-Hadda and his successor Ili-Rapih who were rulers of Byblos, writing to the Egyptian government. This is mainly due to Rib-Hadda's constant pleas for military assistance from Akhenaten. They also deal with the conquest of neighbouring city-states by the Habiru.^{[citation needed]}

It appears Egyptian contact peaked during the 19th dynasty, only to decline during the 20th and 21st dynasties. In addition, when the New Kingdom collapsed in the 11th century BC, Byblos ceased being a colony and became the foremost city of Phoenicia.^[44] Although the archaeological evidence seems to indicate a brief resurgence during the 22nd and 23rd dynasties, it is clear after the Third Intermediate Period the Egyptians started favouring Tyre and Sidon instead of Byblos.^[45]

Archaeological evidence at Byblos, particularly the five Byblian royal inscriptions dating back to around 1200–1000 BC, shows existence of a Phoenician alphabet of twenty-two characters; an important example is the Ahiram sarcophagus. The use of the alphabet was spread by Phoenician merchants through their maritime trade into parts of North Africa and Europe. One of the most important monuments of this period is the Temple of the Obelisks, dedicated to the Canaanite war god Resheph, but this had fallen into ruins by the time of Alexander the Great.^{[citation needed]}

Iron Age

In the Assyrian period, Sibittibaal of Byblos became tributary to Tiglath-Pileser III in 738 BC, and in 701 BC, when Sennacherib conquered all Phoenicia, the king of Byblos was Urumilki. Byblos was also subject to Assyrian kings Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (r. 668–627 BC), under its kings Milkiasaph and Yehawmelek.^{[citation needed]}

In the Achaemenid Empire (538–332 BC), Byblos was the fourth of four Phoenician vassal kingdoms established by the Persians; the first three being Sidon, Tyr, and Arwad.^{[citation needed]}

Classical antiquity

Hellenistic rule came with the arrival of Alexander the Great in the area in 332 BC. Coinage was in use, and there is abundant evidence of continued trade with other Mediterranean countries.^{[citation needed]}

During the Greco-Roman period, the temple of Resheph was elaborately rebuilt, and the city, though smaller than its neighbours such as Tyrus and Zidonia, was a centre for the cult of Adonis.^{[citation needed]}

King Herod of Judaea, known for his extensive building projects, including beyond his own kingdom, constructed a city wall for Byblos.^[46]

In the 3rd century, a small but impressive theatre was constructed. With the rise of Christianity, a bishopric was established in Byblos, and the town grew rapidly. Although a Sasanian colony is known to have been established in the region following the early Muslim conquests of 636, there is little archaeological evidence for it. Trade with Europe effectively dried up, and it was not until the coming of the First Crusade in 1098 that prosperity returned to Byblos, known then as Gibelet or Giblet.^{[citation needed]}

Crusader, Mamluk, Ottoman period

In the 12th and 13th century, Byblos became part of the County of Tripoli, a Crusader state connected to, but largely independent from, the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.

As Gibelet or Giblet, it came under the rule of the Genoese Embriaco family, who created for themselves the Lordship of Gibelet, first as administrators of the city in the name of the Republic of Genoa, and then as a hereditary fief, undertaking to pay an annual fee to Genoa and the church of San Lorenzo (Genoa's Cathedral).^[47]

The Embriaco family's residence, the Byblos Castle, along with the fortified town, served as an important military base for the Crusaders. The remains of the castle are among the most impressive architectural structures now visible in the town centre. The town was taken by Saladin in 1187, re-taken by the Crusaders, and conquered by Baibars in 1266, but it remained in the possession of the Embriacos until around 1300.^{[citation needed]}

Having voluntarily surrendered to the Mamluks, the city was relatively spared from looting following its capture.^[48] Its fortifications were subsequently restored by Baybars.^[49] From 1516 until 1918, the town and the whole region became part of the Ottoman Empire.^{[citation needed]}

Contemporary history

Byblos and all of Lebanon were placed under French Mandate from 1920 until 1943 when Lebanon achieved independence. The 2006 Lebanon War negatively affected the ancient city by covering its harbour and town walls with an oil slick that was the result of an oil spill from a nearby power plant.^[50]

During the 2024 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, UNESCO gave Byblos and 33 other cultural sites enhanced protection to safeguard them against damage.^[51]

Demographics

Byblos's inhabitants are predominantly Christian, mostly Maronite, with minorities of Armenian Apostolic, Greek Orthodox, and Greek Catholics. There is also a minority of Shi`i Muslims. It is said that the predominantly Shi`i city of Bint Jbeil ("Daughter of Byblos") in Southern Lebanon was founded by Shi`a migrants from Byblos. Byblos has three representatives in the Parliament of Lebanon: two Maronites and one Shi`i Muslim.^[52]^[53]

Religion in Byblos (2014) ^[54]
Religion		Percent
Christian	?	86.51%
Shia Islam	?	6.90%
Sunni Islam	?	6.06%
Others	?	0.53%

In 2014, Christians made up 86.51% and Muslims made up 12.97% of registered voters in Byblos. 64.57% of the voters were Maronite Catholics, 10.45% were Armenian Orthodox, 6.90% were Shiite Muslims and 6.06% were Sunni Muslims.^[55]

Education

Byblos is home to the professional schools of the Lebanese American University (LAU). The LAU Byblos Campus houses the Medical School, the Engineering School, the School of Architecture and Design, the Pharmacy School, which offers the only Pharm.D. Program outside the United States accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE),^[56] the School of Business, and the School of Arts and Sciences.

Tourism

Byblos is re-emerging as an upscale touristic hub.^[57] With its ancient port, Phoenician, Roman, and Crusader ruins, sandy beaches and the picturesque mountains that surround it make it an ideal tourist destination. The city is known for its fish restaurants, open-air bars, and outdoor cafes. Yachts cruise into its harbor today as they did in the 1960s and 1970s when Marlon Brando and Frank Sinatra were regular visitors to the city.^[57] Byblos was crowned as the "Arab Tour Capital" for the year 2016 by the Lebanese minister of tourism in the Grand Serail in Beirut. Byblos was chosen by Condé Nast Traveler as the second best city in the Middle East for 2012, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai,^[58] and by the World Tourism Organization as the best Arab tourist city for 2013.^[59]

The Byblos archaeological site

Ain el-Malik or King's Spring, about 20 m deep, is a large cavity accessible by spiral stairs. Once it supplied the city with water.^[60] According to Plutarch's version of the Egyptian Osiris myth, the king's servants met Isis on the stairs of the spring and took her to the royal palace, where she found the body of her husband Osiris embedded in one of the palace pillars.^[61]

The L-shaped Temple was erected about 2700 BC.

The Temple of the Obelisks, originally built in 1600–1200 BC on top of the “L-shaped temple,” was moved by archaeologists to its present location. The many small obelisks found in this temple were used as religious offerings. The sanctuary contained a large number of human figurines made of bronze covered with gold leaf, which are now displayed in the National Museum of Beirut.
The royal necropolis dates back to the second millennium BC and contains tombs of the Byblos kings, including King Ahiram.
The Bronze Age necropolis of the Gebalite elite, discovered in 2019 at the southern outskirts of the ancient city acropolis.^[43]
The Roman theater was built around AD 218.

Other historic buildings

Byblos Wax Museum

The Byblos Wax Museum displays wax statues of characters whose dates of origin range from Phoenician times to current days.

Byblos Fossil Museum

The Byblos Fossil Museum has a collection of fossilised fish, sharks, eel, flying fish, and other marine life, some of which are millions of years old.

Medieval city wall

The old medieval part of Byblos is surrounded by walls running about 270m from east to west and 200m from north to south.

Byblos Castle

Byblos Castle was built by the Crusaders in the 12th century. It is located in the archaeological site near the port.

St John the Baptist Church

Work on the church started during the Crusades in 1115. It was considered a cathedral and was partially destroyed during an earthquake in AD 1170. It was later given to the Maronite bishop as a gift by Prince Yusuf Shihab.^[62]

Sultan Abduljid Mosque

The old mosque by the Castle dates back to the Mamluk period, and adopted the name of Sultan Abdulmejid I after he renovated it.

Historic Quarter and Souks

In the southeast section of the historic city, near the entrance of the archaeological site, is an old market.

Byblos International Festival

This summer music festival is an annual event that takes place in the historic quarter.

Temple of Baalat Gebal

Aram Bezikian Museum

The Armenian Genocide Orphans' Aram Bezikian Museum is a museum dedicated to preserving the memory of the Armenian Genocide and its survivors.^[63]

Notable people

Majdi Allawi (born 1970), Maronite priest, association founder
Jihad Azour (born 1966), economist

Twin towns – sister cities

Byblos is twinned with:

Bonifacio, France
Mangalia, Romania
Orange, France
Patras, Greece

Gallery

Byblos views

Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c Garfinkel, Yosef (2004). ""Néolithique" and "énéolithique" Byblos in Southern Levantine Context". In E. J. Peltenburg; Alexander Wasse (eds.). Neolithic Revolution: New Perspectives on Southwest Asia in Light of Recent Discoveries on Cyprus. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-84217-132-5. Retrieved 18 January 2012.
^ ^a ^b Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2006). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. ABC-CLIO. p. 104. ISBN 1-57607-919-8. Retrieved 22 July 2009. Archaeological excavations at Byblos indicate that the site has been continually inhabited since at least 5000 B.C.
^ Lorenzo Nigro (2007). "Aside the spring: Byblos and Jericho from village to town". In Nigro, Lorenzo (ed.). Byblos and Jericho in the early bronze I : social dynamics and cultural interactions : proceedings of the international workshop held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University. Università di Roma "La Sapienza". p. 35. ISBN 978-88-88438-06-1. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
^ "Byblos". UNESCO. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
^ "Phoenician alphabet | Definition, Letters, & History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ ^a ^b Gauthier, Henri (1928). Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques Vol. 5. pp. 197–198.
^ Wallis Budge, E. A. (1920). An Egyptian hieroglyphic dictionary: with an index of English words, king list and geological list with indexes, list of hieroglyphic characters, coptic and semitic alphabets, etc. Vol II. John Murray. p. 1047.
^ Wilkinson, Toby (2011). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. New York, NY: Random House Trade Paperbacks Books. p. 66. ISBN 978-0553384901.
^ Head, et al. (1911), p. 791.
^ Huss, Werner (1985). Geschichte der Karthager (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 561. ISBN 9783406306549..
^ Ezekiel 27:9.
^ de Césarée, E. (1659). Eusebii pamphili caesareae palestinae episcopi Liber de locis hebraicis: Sive onomasticon urbium et locorum Sacrae Scripturae. Nunc primùm Graecè editum, cum Latina versione Sancti Hieronymi. Et variis Additamentis R. P. Jacobi Bonfrerii Soc. Iesu. Unà cum Commentariis ejusdem in Josue, Judices, & Ruth (in Latin). apud Sebastianum Cramoisy Regis & Reginae Architypographum. p. 70.
^ "Byblos Mart -- Bookworms Corner".
^ Brake, Donald L. (2008). A visual history of the English Bible: the tumultuous tale of the world's bestselling book. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-8010-1316-4.
^ Eberhart, George M. (2013). The Whole Library Handbook 5: Current Data, Professional Advice, and Curiosa. American Library Association. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-8389-1090-0.
^ Beekes, R. S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 246–7.
^ "Strong's Hebrew: 1380. ?????? (Gebal) -- a city in Phoenicia". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ "Strong's Hebrew: 1366. ??????? (gebul) -- border, boundary, territory". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ "Strong's Hebrew: 1379. ?????? (gabal) -- to bound, border". biblehub.com.
^ ^a ^b Watson E. Mills; Roger Aubrey Bullard (1990). Mercer dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. pp. 124–. ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
^ ^a ^b Moore, A.M.T. (1978). The Neolithic of the Levant. Oxford University, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. pp. 329–339.
^
Montet, Pierre (1928). Byblos et l'égypte: quatre campagnes de fouilles à Gebeil, 1921-1922-1923-1924. P. Geuthner. p. 3.
- [Original French]: "D’abord, le site de Byblos était fixé sans conteste possible. Le passage où Strabon définit Byblos une ville située sur une colline à quelque distance de la nier, avait égaré les savants. Renan lui-même avait songé à Qassouba, mais il comprit vite que cette colline était trop peu importante pour avoir été le siège d’une ville telle que Byblos. L’abondance des fragments antiques recueillis aux environs de la citadelle, la situation des nécropoles au nord et au sud de l’enceinte franque prouvent jusqu'à l’évidence que la ville ne s’est pas déplacée et que Gebeil recouvre Byblos."
- [English translation]: "First, the site of Byblos was fixed without question possible. The passage where Strabon defines Byblos as a city situated on a hill some distance away from it, had misled the scientists. Renan himself had thought of Qassouba, but he soon realised that this hill was too small to have been the seat of a city such as Byblos. The abundance of ancient fragments collected around the citadel, the situation of the necropolises to the north and south of the Frankish enclosure provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos."
^ "The Theology of the Ph?nicians: From Sanchoniatho". www.sacred-texts.com.
^ Cauvin, Jacques., Les industries lithiques du tell de Byblos (Liban), L'Anthropologie, vol. 66, 5–6, 1962.
^ Vallois, H.V., Note sur les ossements humains de la nécropole énéolithique de Byblos (avec 2 planches). Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome I, 1937. Beyrouth.
^ Chehab, Emir M., Tombes des chefs d'époque énéolithique trouvés à Byblos, Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.
^ ^a ^b Boynton, E.S., The Ceramic Industry of Ancient Lebanon. (Available in MS in American University of Beirut and in microfilm in Harvard Library) 1960.
^ Erich, R., Relative chronologies in Old World Archaeology, Chicago, 1954.
^ Van Liere, W. and Contenson, Henri de, "Holocene Environment and Early Settlement in the Levant", Annales archéologiques de Syrie, volume 14, pp. 125–128, 1964.
^ Vogel, J.C. Waterbolk, H.T., Groningen Radiocarbon Dates X, Radiocarbon, 14, 6–110 / 105, 1972.
^ ^a ^b Lorraine Copeland; P. Wescombe (1965). Inventory of Stone-Age sites in Lebanon, p. 78-79. Imprimerie Catholique. Retrieved 21 July 2011.^{[permanent dead link]}
^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1948, 1949, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.
^ Dunand, Maurice., Fouilles de Byblos, vol II, Atlas, Paris, 1950d (also part I, 1954 – part II, 1958).
^ Dunand, Maurice., Chronologie des plus anciennes installations de Byblos, Revue Biblique, vol. 57, 1950b.
^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1950, 1951 & 1952, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XII, 1955, Beyrouth.
^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1954, 1955, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XIII, 1956, Beyrouth.
^ Fleisch, Henri., Préhistoire au Liban en 1950, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Fran?ais, vol. 48, 1–2, p. 26. (Contains report on Byblos presented by Maurice Dunand to the 3rd C.I.S.E.A., Brussels, 1948), 1951.
^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1960, 1961 & 1962, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XVII, 1964, Beyrouth.
^ Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1957, 1958 & 1959, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XVI, 1961, Beyrouth.
^ Lorenzo Nigro (2007). "Aside the spring: Byblos and Jericho from village to town". In Nigro, Lorenzo (ed.). Byblos and Jericho in the early bronze I : social dynamics and cultural interactions : proceedings of the international workshop held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University. Università di Roma "La Sapienza". p. 35. ISBN 978-88-88438-06-1. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
^ Fleisch, Henri., Néolithique du Proche-Orient, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Fran?ais, vol. 49, 5–6, p. 212. (Contains report on Byblos excavations of 1951 by Maurice Dunand), 1952.
^ Wilkinson, Toby, 1999, Early Dynastic Egypt p. 78.
^ ^a ^b Aractingi 2025.
^ "Byblos" in: Encyclop?dia Britannica, vol. 2, p. 692. Encyclop?dia Britannica, Inc., 1992. ISBN 0-85229-553-7
^ Shaw, Ian: "The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt", page 321. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7
^ Rogers, Guy MacLean (2021). For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 21–22, 535. ISBN 978-0-300-24813-5.
^ "EMBRIACI in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ Renan, Ernest (1864). Mission de Phénicie. Paris: Imprimerie impériale. p. 157.
^ Maurice Dunand (1973). Byblos: Its History, Ruins and Legends (3rd ed.). Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique. p. 41.
^ Dr. Lina G. Tahan. "ICOMOS Heritage at Risk 2006/2007" (PDF). ICOMOS.
^ "Cultural property under enhanced protection Lebanon". Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ "Lebanon Elections 2005". Proud-to-be-lebanese.com. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ "Elections municipales et ikhtiariah au Mont-Liban" (PDF). Localiban. 2010. p. 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ "??????? ??? ??????? ????????/?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????".
^ "??????? ??? ??????? ????????/?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????".
^ "Lebanese American University". AAICU. 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ ^a ^b Beehner, Lionel (2025-08-06). "Byblos, Lebanon's Ancient Port, Is Reborn". The New York Times. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ "Middle East: Top 5 Cities: Readers' Choice Awards : Condé Nast Traveler". Cntraveler.com. 2025-08-06. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
^ "Byblos crowned best Arab tourist city". Retrieved 20 June 2013.
^ "Temple of the Obelisks in Byblos". www.obelisks.org.
^ "Isis and Osiris Legend". www.phoenician.org.
^ "St. John-Marc Church". jbail-byblos.gov.lb.
^ Dagher, Rhéa; Kalindjian, Rita (2020). "Paving the way for a Lebanese national narrative: Empathy at the Armenian Genocide Orphans' Aram Bezikian Museum in Lebanon". In Rey, Virginie (ed.). Art of Minorities: Cultural Representation in Museums of the Middle East and North Africa. Edinburgh University Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-4744-4379-1.

References

Head, Barclay; et al. (1911). "Phoenicia". Historia Numorum (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 788–801.
Aractingi, Philippe (5 January 2025). Liban, Les secrets du royaume de Byblos [Lebanon, the secrets of the kingdom of Byblos] (Television production) (in French). ARTE. Archived from the original on 10 February 2025.

External links

"Byblos". Lebanon, the Cedars' Land.
"Byblos info". middleeast.com.
"Embassy of Lebanon in Canada". Byblos. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06.
"Byblos in Belarus". byblos.by. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
"Radio Carbon Context Database". University of Cologne. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.
Baalat ancient deity, chiefly of Byblos

[PeltenburgWasse2004a-1] Garfinkel, Yosef (2004). ""Néolithique" and "énéolithique" Byblos in Southern Levantine Context". In E. J. Peltenburg; Alexander Wasse (eds.). Neolithic Revolution: New Perspectives on Southwest Asia in Light of Recent Discoveries on Cyprus. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-84217-132-5. Retrieved 18 January 2012.

[byblos1-2] Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E.; Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (2006). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. ABC-CLIO. p. 104. ISBN 1-57607-919-8. Retrieved 22 July 2009. Archaeological excavations at Byblos indicate that the site has been continually inhabited since at least 5000 B.C.

[3] Lorenzo Nigro (2007). "Aside the spring: Byblos and Jericho from village to town". In Nigro, Lorenzo (ed.). Byblos and Jericho in the early bronze I : social dynamics and cultural interactions : proceedings of the international workshop held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University. Università di Roma "La Sapienza". p. 35. ISBN 978-88-88438-06-1. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 17 February 2017.

[4] "Byblos". UNESCO. Retrieved 14 March 2018.

[5] "Phoenician alphabet | Definition, Letters, & History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[Gauthier197-6] Gauthier, Henri (1928). Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques Vol. 5. pp. 197–198.

[Budge1047-7] Wallis Budge, E. A. (1920). An Egyptian hieroglyphic dictionary: with an index of English words, king list and geological list with indexes, list of hieroglyphic characters, coptic and semitic alphabets, etc. Vol II. John Murray. p. 1047.

[8] Wilkinson, Toby (2011). The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. New York, NY: Random House Trade Paperbacks Books. p. 66. ISBN 978-0553384901.

[FOOTNOTEHead,_''et_al''.1911791-9] Head, et al. (1911), p. 791.

[10] Huss, Werner (1985). Geschichte der Karthager (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 561. ISBN 9783406306549..

[11] Ezekiel 27:9.

[de_Césarée_1659_p._184-12] Césarée, E. (1659). Eusebii pamphili caesareae palestinae episcopi Liber de locis hebraicis: Sive onomasticon urbium et locorum Sacrae Scripturae. Nunc primùm Graecè editum, cum Latina versione Sancti Hieronymi. Et variis Additamentis R. P. Jacobi Bonfrerii Soc. Iesu. Unà cum Commentariis ejusdem in Josue, Judices, & Ruth (in Latin). apud Sebastianum Cramoisy Regis & Reginae Architypographum. p. 70.

[13] "Byblos Mart -- Bookworms Corner".

[14] Brake, Donald L. (2008). A visual history of the English Bible: the tumultuous tale of the world's bestselling book. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-8010-1316-4.

[Eberhart2013-15] Eberhart, George M. (2013). The Whole Library Handbook 5: Current Data, Professional Advice, and Curiosa. American Library Association. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-8389-1090-0.

[16] Beekes, R. S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 246–7.

[17] "Strong's Hebrew: 1380. ?????? (Gebal) -- a city in Phoenicia". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[18] "Strong's Hebrew: 1366. ??????? (gebul) -- border, boundary, territory". biblehub.com. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[19] "Strong's Hebrew: 1379. ?????? (gabal) -- to bound, border". biblehub.com.

[MillsBullard1990-20] Watson E. Mills; Roger Aubrey Bullard (1990). Mercer dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. pp. 124–. ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7. Retrieved 8 July 2011.

[Moore-21] Moore, A.M.T. (1978). The Neolithic of the Levant. Oxford University, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. pp. 329–339.

[22] Montet, Pierre (1928). Byblos et l'égypte: quatre campagnes de fouilles à Gebeil, 1921-1922-1923-1924. P. Geuthner. p. 3.
[Original French]: "D’abord, le site de Byblos était fixé sans conteste possible. Le passage où Strabon définit Byblos une ville située sur une colline à quelque distance de la nier, avait égaré les savants. Renan lui-même avait songé à Qassouba, mais il comprit vite que cette colline était trop peu importante pour avoir été le siège d’une ville telle que Byblos. L’abondance des fragments antiques recueillis aux environs de la citadelle, la situation des nécropoles au nord et au sud de l’enceinte franque prouvent jusqu'à l’évidence que la ville ne s’est pas déplacée et que Gebeil recouvre Byblos."

[English translation]: "First, the site of Byblos was fixed without question possible. The passage where Strabon defines Byblos as a city situated on a hill some distance away from it, had misled the scientists. Renan himself had thought of Qassouba, but he soon realised that this hill was too small to have been the seat of a city such as Byblos. The abundance of ancient fragments collected around the citadel, the situation of the necropolises to the north and south of the Frankish enclosure provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos."

[23] [Original French]: "D’abord, le site de Byblos était fixé sans conteste possible. Le passage où Strabon définit Byblos une ville située sur une colline à quelque distance de la nier, avait égaré les savants. Renan lui-même avait songé à Qassouba, mais il comprit vite que cette colline était trop peu importante pour avoir été le siège d’une ville telle que Byblos. L’abondance des fragments antiques recueillis aux environs de la citadelle, la situation des nécropoles au nord et au sud de l’enceinte franque prouvent jusqu'à l’évidence que la ville ne s’est pas déplacée et que Gebeil recouvre Byblos."

[24] [English translation]: "First, the site of Byblos was fixed without question possible. The passage where Strabon defines Byblos as a city situated on a hill some distance away from it, had misled the scientists. Renan himself had thought of Qassouba, but he soon realised that this hill was too small to have been the seat of a city such as Byblos. The abundance of ancient fragments collected around the citadel, the situation of the necropolises to the north and south of the Frankish enclosure provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos."

[23] "The Theology of the Ph?nicians: From Sanchoniatho". www.sacred-texts.com.

[24] Cauvin, Jacques., Les industries lithiques du tell de Byblos (Liban), L'Anthropologie, vol. 66, 5–6, 1962.

[25] Vallois, H.V., Note sur les ossements humains de la nécropole énéolithique de Byblos (avec 2 planches). Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome I, 1937. Beyrouth.

[26] Chehab, Emir M., Tombes des chefs d'époque énéolithique trouvés à Byblos, Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.

[boynton-27] Boynton, E.S., The Ceramic Industry of Ancient Lebanon. (Available in MS in American University of Beirut and in microfilm in Harvard Library) 1960.

[28] Erich, R., Relative chronologies in Old World Archaeology, Chicago, 1954.

[29] Van Liere, W. and Contenson, Henri de, "Holocene Environment and Early Settlement in the Levant", Annales archéologiques de Syrie, volume 14, pp. 125–128, 1964.

[30] Vogel, J.C. Waterbolk, H.T., Groningen Radiocarbon Dates X, Radiocarbon, 14, 6–110 / 105, 1972.

[CopelandWescombe1965-31] Lorraine Copeland; P. Wescombe (1965). Inventory of Stone-Age sites in Lebanon, p. 78-79. Imprimerie Catholique. Retrieved 21 July 2011.^{[permanent dead link]}

[32] Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1948, 1949, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome IX, 1949–1950, Beyrouth.

[33] Dunand, Maurice., Fouilles de Byblos, vol II, Atlas, Paris, 1950d (also part I, 1954 – part II, 1958).

[34] Dunand, Maurice., Chronologie des plus anciennes installations de Byblos, Revue Biblique, vol. 57, 1950b.

[35] Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1950, 1951 & 1952, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XII, 1955, Beyrouth.

[36] Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1954, 1955, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XIII, 1956, Beyrouth.

[37] Fleisch, Henri., Préhistoire au Liban en 1950, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Fran?ais, vol. 48, 1–2, p. 26. (Contains report on Byblos presented by Maurice Dunand to the 3rd C.I.S.E.A., Brussels, 1948), 1951.

[38] Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1960, 1961 & 1962, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XVII, 1964, Beyrouth.

[39] Dunand, Maurice., Rapport préliminaire sure les fouilles de Byblos en 1957, 1958 & 1959, Bulletin du musée de Beyrouth. Tome XVI, 1961, Beyrouth.

[40] Lorenzo Nigro (2007). "Aside the spring: Byblos and Jericho from village to town". In Nigro, Lorenzo (ed.). Byblos and Jericho in the early bronze I : social dynamics and cultural interactions : proceedings of the international workshop held in Rome on March 6th 2007 by Rome "La Sapienza" University. Università di Roma "La Sapienza". p. 35. ISBN 978-88-88438-06-1. Retrieved 17 February 2017.

[41] Fleisch, Henri., Néolithique du Proche-Orient, Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Fran?ais, vol. 49, 5–6, p. 212. (Contains report on Byblos excavations of 1951 by Maurice Dunand), 1952.

[42] Wilkinson, Toby, 1999, Early Dynastic Egypt p. 78.

[FOOTNOTEAractingi2025-43] Aractingi 2025.

[44] "Byblos" in: Encyclop?dia Britannica, vol. 2, p. 692. Encyclop?dia Britannica, Inc., 1992. ISBN 0-85229-553-7

[45] Shaw, Ian: "The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt", page 321. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7

[:6-46] Rogers, Guy MacLean (2021). For the Freedom of Zion: the Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66-74 CE. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 21–22, 535. ISBN 978-0-300-24813-5.

[47] "EMBRIACI in "Enciclopedia Italiana"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[48] Renan, Ernest (1864). Mission de Phénicie. Paris: Imprimerie impériale. p. 157.

[49] Maurice Dunand (1973). Byblos: Its History, Ruins and Legends (3rd ed.). Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique. p. 41.

[50] Dr. Lina G. Tahan. "ICOMOS Heritage at Risk 2006/2007" (PDF). ICOMOS.

[51] "Cultural property under enhanced protection Lebanon". Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[52] "Lebanon Elections 2005". Proud-to-be-lebanese.com. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[53] "Elections municipales et ikhtiariah au Mont-Liban" (PDF). Localiban. 2010. p. 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[54] "??????? ??? ??????? ????????/?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????".

[55] "??????? ??? ??????? ????????/?????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????".

[56] "Lebanese American University". AAICU. 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[Beehner-57] Beehner, Lionel (2025-08-06). "Byblos, Lebanon's Ancient Port, Is Reborn". The New York Times. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[58] "Middle East: Top 5 Cities: Readers' Choice Awards : Condé Nast Traveler". Cntraveler.com. 2025-08-06. Archived from the original on 2025-08-06. Retrieved 2025-08-06.

[59] "Byblos crowned best Arab tourist city". Retrieved 20 June 2013.

[60] "Temple of the Obelisks in Byblos". www.obelisks.org.

[61] "Isis and Osiris Legend". www.phoenician.org.

[62] "St. John-Marc Church". jbail-byblos.gov.lb.

[63] Dagher, Rhéa; Kalindjian, Rita (2020). "Paving the way for a Lebanese national narrative: Empathy at the Armenian Genocide Orphans' Aram Bezikian Museum in Lebanon". In Rey, Virginie (ed.). Art of Minorities: Cultural Representation in Museums of the Middle East and North Africa. Edinburgh University Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-4744-4379-1.

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v t e Byblos District, Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate
Capital: Byblos
Towns and villages	Aabaydat Almat el-Chmaliyeh Almat el-Jnoubiyeh Amsheet Annaya Aaqoura Adonis Afqa Ain ed-Delbeh Ain el-Ghouaybeh Ain Jrain Ain Kfaa Bazyoun Bchilleh Beer el-Hit Behdidat Bejjeh Bekhaaz Berbara Beithabbak Bichtlida -Fidar Benta?l Birket Hjoula Blat Boulhos Brayj Byblos Chatine Chikhane Chmout Edde Ehmej Fatreh Ferhet Fidar Fghal Ghabat Ghalboun Gharzouz Ghorfine Habil Halat Haqel Hay el-Arabeh Hbaline Hboub Hdayneh Hjoula Hosrayel Hsarat Hsoun Jaj Janneh Jeddayel Jenjol Jlisseh Jouret el-Qattine Kafr Kfar Baal Kfar Hitta Kfar Kiddeh Kfar Masshoun Kfar Qouas Kfoun Laqlouq Lassa Lehfed Maad Majdel Marj Mastita Mayfouq Mazraat es-Siyad Mechane Mghayreh Mish Mish Mounsef Nahr Ibrahim Qahmez Qartaba Qartaboun Qorqraiya Ram Ras Osta Rihaneh Seraaita Souaneh Tartej Tourzaiya Yanouh Zebdine
Notable landmarks	Abraham River Byblos Castle Jaj Cedar National Park Laqlouq skiing resort Royal necropolis of Byblos Temple of Baalat Gebal Temple of the Obelisks

v t e Phoenician cities and colonies
Algeria	Camarata Cartennae (Tenes) Hippo Regius Icosium (Algiers) Igilgili (Jijel) Iol (Cherchell) Iomnium (Tigzirt) Cirta (Constantine) Kissi (Djinet) Macomades Malaca Rachgoun Rusazus (Azeffoun) Rusguniae (Tamentfoust) Rusicade (Skikda) Rusippisir (Taksebt) Rusubbicari (Zemmouri El Bahri) Rusuccuru (Dellys) Sarai (A?n Oulmene) Thagora (Taoura) Tipasa in Mauretania Tipasa in Numidia Timici
Cyprus	Dhali Kition (Larnaca) Lapathus Marion
Greece	Callista (Santorini) Paxi Rhodes Delos
Israel	Achzib Akka (Acre) Dora Michal Jaffa Reshef Shikmona (Haifa) Strato's Tower (Caesarea)
Italy	Bitan (Chia) Cape Melqart (Cefalù) Drepanum (Trapani) Eryx (Erice) Heraclea Minoa Kapara (Soluntum) Karaly (Cagliari) Lilybaeum Motya Neapolis Nora Olbia Pantelleria Selinunte Sulci (Sant'Antioco) Tharros ?i? (Palermo)
Lebanon	Amia Ampi Arqa Athar (Tripoli) Baalbek Birut (Beirut) Botrys (Teros) Gebal (Byblos) Ornithon (Tell el-Burak) Porphyreon (Jieh) Sarepta Sidon Sur (Tyre), Ushu (Palaetyrus) Umm al-Amad
Libya	Lepcis (Khoms) Oyat (Tripoli) Tsabratan
Malta	Maleth (Cospicua) Ann (Mdina) Gaulos (Gozo) G?ajn Qajjet Mtarfa Ras il-Wardija Tas-Sil?
Morocco	Azama (Azemmour) Arambys (Mogador) Caricus Murus Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir) Likush (Larache) Shalat (Chellah) Tamusida Tinga (Tangier) Anfa (Casablanca) Volubilis ¹ Mogador Rusadir Oualidia Zilil Gadir Sala Thymiaterium Rusibis
Portugal	Portus Hannibalis Portus Magonis (Portim?o) Olissipona (Lisbon) Ossonoba (Faro) Balsa (Tavira)
Spain	Abdera (Adra) Abyla (Ceuta) Akra Leuka (Alicante) Gadir (Cadiz) Herna Iboshim (Ibiza) Mahón Malake (Málaga) Onoba Carthage (Cartagena) Rushadir (Melilla) Saguntum Sexi (Almunecar) Tagilit (Tíjola) Toscanos (Velez) Tyreche
Syria	Arwad Marat (Amrit) Balanaea (Baniyas) Carne Paltus Safita Shuksi Sumur Ugarit
Tunisia	Aspis (Kelibia) Bulla Regia Carthage Hadrumetum (Sousse) Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte) Kerkouane Lepcis (Monastir) Maqom Hadesh (Ounga) Meninx (Djerba) Ruspe Ruspina Sicca (El Kef) Tabarka Tayinat (Thyna) Thapsus Thysdrus (El Djem) Utica
Other	Myriandus Phoenicus Gibraltar Tahpanhes

v t e Crusader states
List of Crusader states
Levant	Kingdom of Jerusalem vassals Principality of Antioch Antioch County of Edessa Marash County of Tripoli Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Kingdom of Cyprus
Greece	Latin Empire of Constantinople Duchy of Philippopolis Kingdom of Thessalonica Principality of Achaea Duchy of Athens Duchy of Neopatras Duchy of the Archipelago Triarchy of Negroponte County Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos Lordship of Argos and Nauplia Venetian Stato da Màr Knights Hospitaller Hospitaller Rhodes Genoese colonies
Prussia and Livonia	State of the Teutonic Order* Teutonic Order Livonian Order Livonian Brothers of the Sword* Archbishopric of Riga Bishopric of Courland Bishopric of Dorpat Bishopric of ?sel–Wiek Bishopric of Reval Dobrzyń Land Order of Dobrzyń Free City of Riga
Military orders Crusading movement Crusades

Authority control databases
International	VIAF
National	Germany Czech Republic Israel
Geographic	MusicBrainz area Pleiades
Other	IdRef Kulturenvanteri monument Yale LUX

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